Closing the gap on Indigenous disadvantage: the challenge for Australia

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Contents

• Table of contents
• Foreword
• The Government's approach to Indigenous policy
• The challenge facing Australia: the evidence
• COAG - a new partnership with all governments
• Harnessing the corporate and community sectors
• Australian Government priorities for 2009
• Conclusion

The challenge facing Australia: the evidence

The challenge ahead of us is significant. Addressing the failures of the past requires taking stock of the true extent of inequalities between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australia. These gaps are most visible in the key areas of life expectancy, infant and child mortality, early childhood education, literacy and numeracy skills, school completion rates, and employment outcomes.

A snapshot of Indigenous Australia

There are just over half a million Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia today, comprising 2.5 per cent of the Australian population⁴. Although many Indigenous Australians have access to life opportunities and a good standard of living, too many Indigenous Australians experience unacceptable levels of disadvantage in living standards, life expectancy, education, health and employment. Current data shows a significant gap in these critical areas between the Indigenous and non-Indigenous population.
Some important differences between the Indigenous population and other Australians are⁵:

• the Indigenous population grew at 12.8 per cent from 2001 to 2006, nearly double the rate of the total population (6.6 per cent). This trend is likely to continue. 
• the total fertility rate for Indigenous women (2.4 babies per woman) is considerably higher than the fertility rate for all women (1.9 babies per woman)⁶.
• the median age of the Indigenous population is 21 years (37 years for non-Indigenous).
• thirty eight per cent of Indigenous people are under the age of 15 (19 per cent for non-Indigenous).
• only 3 per cent of Indigenous people are aged over 65 (13 per cent for non-Indigenous).

Figure 1 below illustrates the differences in the age profile between the Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations⁷:

Figure 1. Age distribution of the Indigenous and non-Indigenous population (a) - June 2006

While an ageing workforce and funding for retirement are issues confronting all Australians, the demographic profile of the Indigenous population means that areas such as early childhood development, education, housing and the transition to employment are areas of critical need.
Around 75 per cent of Indigenous people live in urban or regional areas of Australia. Only 25 per cent live in remote areas. Socio-economic disadvantage is marked in both remote and non-remote areas, and strategies to combat disadvantage for all Indigenous Australians, wherever they live, are needed.

Life expectancy

Closing the gap in life expectancy between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians is a matter of national priority. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2006 estimates show life expectancy for Indigenous Australians to be approximately 17 years lower than the total population for the period of 1996-2001; for Indigenous males, 59 years compared with 77 years in the non-Indigenous population and, for Indigenous females, 65 years compared with 82 years. However, the statistics on Indigenous life expectancy are subject to a range of data quality issues, and further work is being done to obtain robust estimates that can be monitored over time.

Life expectancy is affected by many factors, including socio-economic status, quality and accessibility of the health system, risk factor behaviour (tobacco, alcohol, nutrition, exercise), social factors and environmental factors (e.g. over-crowded housing, poor drinking water and sanitation).

Improvements to health outcomes will directly contribute to Indigenous life expectancy, and are a priority for this Government. Chronic and preventable diseases are the areas requiring the greatest action.

Figure 2 shows the difference in overall mortality rates between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians is most apparent in the early and middle years.

Figure 2. Mortality rates by age group and sex by Indigenous status, Qld, WA, SA and NT, 2002-2006

Source: Australian Health Ministers’ Advisory Council, 2008, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Performance Framework 2008 Summary.

Child and infant mortality

Approximately 83 per cent of Indigenous deaths below age 5 occur within the first year of life and, of these, nearly half occur within the first month. Infant mortality (less than 1 year) largely stems from problems during pregnancy and birth. Infant mortality for Indigenous infants in the 2002‑06 period was 12.3 deaths per 1000 live births, compared with 4.2 deaths for non‑Indigenous infants⁸.

The most common causes of Indigenous infant mortality are conditions originating in the perinatal period (46 per cent)⁹ , such as birth trauma, foetal growth, complications of pregnancy and respiratory and cardiovascular disorders specific to the perinatal period¹⁰

The mortality rates of Australian infants are declining and it is encouraging that with this overall decline in infant mortality, the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous infant mortality is also declining. There is much work to be done, however, to continue this momentum, and the gap that remains is still unacceptable

Figure 3. Infant mortality rates Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander infants and other Australians, WA, SA  and NT, 1991–2006, Qld, WA, SA  and NT, 1998–2006

Source: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare Analysis of National Mortality Database

These outcomes highlight the need to focus on improving the quality and accessibility of child and maternal health services to Indigenous Australians to achieve the objective of Closing the Gap.

Early childhood development

Indigenous children currently experience much poorer outcomes than non-Indigenous children, with high levels of disadvantage in early childhood associated with poorer outcomes in health and education. Without preschool learning opportunities, Indigenous students are likely to be behind from their first year of formal schooling. Figure 4 shows the rates of participation in 2003 and 2005 for Indigenous children aged four across all states and territories

Figure 4. Participation rates for Indigenous children in preschool^a for 2003 and 2005^b

Participation rates for Indigenous children in preschool^a for 2003 and 2005^b

	Four-year-olds in 2003 Indigenous children (%)	Four-year-olds in 2005 Indigenous children (%)
NSW	39.1	41.2
Victoria	54.5	41.9
Queensland	11.8	11.3
WA	99.7	93.0
SA	88.4	91.3
Tasmania	36.2	36.9
ACT	22.3	66.7
NT	68.2	70.3
Australia (total)	46.9	46.2

(a): Does not include preschool services provided in long day care services
(b): The participation rate is derived by dividing enrolments for four-year-olds  by respective population in the relevant jurisdictions.
Source: Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage: Key Indicators 2005; 2007.

Whilst children aged 3 to 5 years of age living in very remote areas are significantly less likely to attend a preschool than those living in other areas of Australia, those living in major cities are in fact only slightly more likely to attend preschools than those who are living in regional or remote localities. Preschool education accessibility for Indigenous children must be improved in all areas – urban, regional and remote – to have a chance at improving outcomes for young Indigenous Australians.

Literacy and numeracy

While most Indigenous students in metropolitan and regional areas meet the minimum reading standards, the percentage of students achieving at least the minimum standard of literacy and numeracy skills decreases as the level of remoteness increases.

The table below shows the 2008 National Assessment Program: Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) results in reading, writing and numeracy for Indigenous and non-Indigenous students in years 3, 5, 7 and 9 and the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous outcomes.

Figure 5. Percentage of students at or above the national minimum standard, 2008

Percentage of students at or above the national minimum standard, 2008

		Indigenous%	Non-Indigenous%	Gap in percentage points
Year 3	Reading	68.3	93.5	25.2
Year 3	Writing	78.8	96.4	17.6
Year 3	Numeracy	78.6	96.0	17.4
Year 5	Reading	63.4	92.6	29.2
Year 5	Writing	69.7	93.9	24.2
Year 5	Numeracy	69.2	94.0	24.8
Year 7	Reading	71.9	95.4	23.5
Year 7	Writing	67.9	93.2	25.3
Year 7	Numeracy	78.6	96.4	17.8
Year 9	Reading	70.7	94.2	23.5
Year 9	Writing	59.7	88.8	29.1
Year 9	Numeracy	72.5	94.8	22.3

Source: 2008 national Asssessment Program literacy and Numeracy. MCEETYA 2008

Achievement is lower for Indigenous students across all year levels¹¹. Results for Indigenous students in very remote Australia are extremely poor. The majority of Indigenous students in very remote Australia currently do not meet the national minimum standard in reading, writing and numeracy.

Figure 6. Percentage of Indigenous students at or above the national minimum
standard by remoteness, 2008

 

Percentage of Indigenous students at or above the national minimum
standard by remoteness, 2008

		Metro	Provincial	Remote	Very remote
Year 3	Reading	78.6	76.2	53.9	30.5
Year 3	Writing	86.9	86.2	69.0	45.0
Year 3	Numeracy	85.9	85.5	70.4	47.5
Year 5	Reading	74.4	71.0	47.8	21.7
Year 5	Writing	79.7	76.0	58.1	31.6
Year 5	Numeracy	78.5	75.7	56.3	32.9
Year 7	Reading	83.0	79.6	56.6	28.0
Year 7	Writing	78.7	73.8	54.0	28.5
Year 7	Numeracy	87.0	83.9	67.8	46.4
Year 9	Reading	78.4	75.3	57.4	29.0
Year 9	Writing	67.9	62.6	44.4	23.8
Year 9	Numeracy	78.9	76.2	60.4	38.2

Source: 2008 national Asssessment Program literacy and Numeracy. MCEETYA 2008

Year 12 attainment

There is a considerable gap in both attainment and attendance in year 12 and equivalent.¹² In 2007, only 42.9 per cent of Indigenous 17-year-olds attended secondary school, compared with 65 per cent of non-Indigenous 17-year-olds .

Evidence indicates that young Australians who do not complete year 12 are less likely to have the same opportunities as those who do.¹³ In 2006, year 12 completions¹⁴ for Indigenous Australians were 45.3 per cent, compared to 86.3 per cent for non-Indigenous.¹⁵ Based on current trends, the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous is widening. To halve the gap by 2020, Indigenous year 12 completion rates (or equivalent) would need to increase by up to 2 percentage points each year.

Figure 7 illustrates the marked difference in outcomes for Indigenous students when compared to non-Indigenous students.

Figure 7. Year 12 Attainment from year 11 student base

Source: Indigenous Education Program performance reports and National Schools Statistics Collection; 2002-2007

Completing school is a vital foundation for individuals, their families and communities and the country. A fulfilling and successful education is the means to employment and economic independence, and can form an important basis for long-term intergenerational change by providing individuals with the skills necessary to participate fully in society.

Employment

Indigenous Australians experience much higher levels of unemployment than non-Indigenous Australians. At the time of the last Census (in 2006), around 48 per cent of the Indigenous workforce-aged population was in employment. This compares to 72 per cent for other Australians – a gap of 24 percentage points.

To halve this gap to 12 percentage points within 10 years, around 100,000 more Indigenous Australians would need to be employed. This represents a more than 60 per cent total increase in the number of Indigenous people employed at mid-2006.

Figure 8. Rate of Indigenous and non-Indigenous employment to 2006

Rate of Indigenous and non-Indigenous employment to 2006

Significant determinants of employment include educational attainment, literacy and numeracy skills, location, and the employment status of family members. Energies must be focused on these areas to increase employment and create better opportunities for Indigenous Australians more broadly.

Being employed leads to improved wealth and asset creation for families and communities, which in turn has a positive influence on the health and education of children. Finding ways to increase the economic participation of the Indigenous working age population is a priority.

Foundations for change

These are sobering statistics that underline the depth and complexity of the challenge ahead.  Overcoming Indigenous disadvantage will require a long-term, generational commitment that sees major effort directed to a range of priority areas or ‘building blocks’ to support Closing the Gap. These building blocks complement each other; for example, a failure to ensure secure tenure prevents investment and construction in healthy housing. These building blocks work together, with outcomes in one area supporting outcomes in others.

4. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Population Distribution, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, 2006 (cat. no. 4705.0)
5. Based on final Estimated Residential Population figures (June 2006) in ABS, (2008) Experimental Estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, June 2006 (cat. no. 3238.0.55.001)
6. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Births Australia 2007, (cat no. 3301.0)
7. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Year Book Australia 2008, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Population.(cat. no. 1301.0
   
8. Australian Health Ministers’ Advisory Council, 2008, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Performance Framework 2008.
9. ibid
10. ibid
11. NAPLAN Results 2008: Percentage of Students At or Above National Minimum Reading Standard by Geolocation
12. Completion of Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) certificate II
13. Source: Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth – Research Report 16
14. As a proportion of year 11 enrolments the year before
15. National Report to Parliament on Indigenous Education and Training 2006

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